Discussions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Discussions - Essay Example Aside from this, he also uses the word â€Å"come† recurrently to employ a sense of enticement, which perhaps does not just pertain to his condition while he was having this experience but also for people such as me who are reading his works to be pulled in to the story. What really works for me in the story, besides its interesting paradoxical nature, is the subtle restrain of emotions by the author. Hughes, instead of describing the sentiments of the protagonist, expounds on the surroundings of the character, mainly using verbs to push the story forward and into transition. This then makes the reader read between the lines and more sensitive to what the main character would feel given the circumstances, hence what the author really asks of his audience is to be human and to feel for the person if he or she was placed in a particular situation. Because of this, I could definitely relate to the story as I myself have experienced waiting for something that will never seem to come. Characteristically human as well, I have lied to myself and others to suppress what I am feeling inside of me. Human nature is generally paradoxical in this way: hope is simultaneously our strength and weakness. Though waiting only gives me disappointment, I still wait for something to save me; I still hope that it is coming, my salvation. The article that I have chosen has the heading â€Å"From Swine Flu to Bubonic Plague, Epidemics have always stirred Fear and Terror† by Richard Martin, a staff writer from the St. Petersburg Times. His introductory lines go: â€Å"So far, swine flu has infected fewer than 200 people, scattered across the United States. Most havent needed hospitalization. But the signs of fear are everywhere.† Many have been doing necessary, or as the writer might imply, unnecessary precautionary measures to avoid swine flu such as wearing of surgical masks in public places,

Cultural Aspects In British Culture Cultural Studies Essay

Cultural Aspects In British Culture Cultural Studies Essay Since the 1950s Britain has gone through an intense period of accelerated social and cultural transitions. These changes come from the results of the disintegration of the British Empire, the expansion of the Commonwealth and the movement of people from various nationalities, languages and cultures. These phenomena have supported the progressive globalization of life and conceived a multi-ethnic and multicultural society, with a strong plurality of identities and heritages. One of the most driving motions through this period has been the womens movement. Their entrance into the labour market and their growing autonomy has designed fundamental changes in their role in society and their relations with men. Similarly, the emergence of youth as an identifiable group with a very different lifestyle to members of older generations, has contributed substantially to the changing social and cultural profile of the country. The younger generation has a more equality view of the role of women in society. The Hofstede analysis for Britain reports strong feelings towards individualism and masculinity. On the other hand, the power distance and uncertainty avoidance are ranked considerably low. Long-term orientation ranks the lowest. This study indicates potential change that Britain is willing to achieve rapidly with the new generations. Men and women mix freely, with independent relationships to one another. In the football club girls are all very open, they can get in touch with strangers very easily, undress without any shame. And Jess behaves on the contrary. The most vivid example of the British youths independence is the fact that parents cant interfere in Juless private life, even when it deals with her sexual orientation. According to Halls scale of levels of cultures, British culture is a low level context culture because the messages are clear and the words carry most of the information in most communication (for example, when the coach sees that Jess has problems with her parents because of football, he goes there and tells them about his opinion, without any rituals, very directly). More interpersonal connections of shorter duration exist in Britain. Even choosing football in this movie seems to refl ect the low level context British culture is experiencing. Football is one of the most rule and goal-oriented, strictly defined and team playing games (where each has its own job). According to Halls cultural theories, British culture seems to be the mix of the past-oriented and future-oriented cultures. Old generation is still trying not to lose traditions, they are still very conservative but the younger people are much more future-oriented, as it is very obvious from Bend it like Beckham. In conclusion, British culture is definitely an individualistic one, due to its high level of individual independence, goals and concept of individuality over group goals. Individuals have universal communication and equal attitude to everyone, in the family and in everyday life where men and women enjoy equal rights. Its also a feminine culture with several specific features of male culture. British culture is a low level context one where people play by external rules, they have separation of time, space, activities, relationships; more interpersonal connections of shorter duration; almost everything is task-centered (decision and activities focus around what needs to be done, division of responsibilities) and so on. Indian culture Indias history has forged its culture. Its particular geography and the assimilation of customs, traditions and ideas from some of its neighbors have been shaping the country, as well as maintaining its ancient heritages, from the Indus Valley Civilization onward. India enjoys a great diversity of practices, languages, customs, and traditions, which are the results of a unique and particular cultural blend over the past five millennia. The family plays an important role in teaching and transmitting values and traditions. The respect for elders is a major component in Indian culture. They represent the familial driving force and pass on the Indian culture within us. India is a high contest culture with close connections between people, less verbally explicit, more indirect verbal interaction, less written and formal communication and more relationship focused. The respect to one another is also a strong pillar. Power Distance score for India is synonymous with high level of inequality of power and wealth within the society. This situation is at some point accepted by the population as a cultural norm. In contrast, people tend to promote interdependent relationship with each other as collectivistic cultures do, by embracing interdependence, family security, social hierarchies, cooperation, and low levels of competition. Indian scores a long term orientation dimension, which is indicative of a perseverant and parsimonious culture. It is also oriented toward masculinity, which reinforces a greater gap between values of men and women. India scores low towards the uncertainty avoidance dimension, which indicates a culture more open to unstructured ideas and situations, as well as fewer rules and regulations towards. The head of the Indians family is male oriented, the father or husband. We can see here male culture, but also with some elements of female culture. The woman in Indian culture is a symbol of house. Jesss mother shows us how real Indian wife has to behave, as mother and housewife. Her main goal is to give her daughters all knowledge that she knows. Communication style The Indian culture is oriented toward collectivism and group goals. Their pillar is traditional house holding and the family. We can see that Jess has a huge amount of relatives who really are happy with her sisters wedding. We can see with Jess sisters wedding the role and active participation the family plays in Indian culture. We can see also that the status is very important for Indians. In the episode Jesss coach comes to talk to her family about football trainings. Jesss father was telling his attitude to football and to problems that he had many years ago because of the football, at the same time Jess interrupted him and tried to say some her own opinions, but it was prohibited because father is the head of the family. So Jesss mother made the reprimand: It is your father, you cant talk while your father is talking. This moment shows us the respect and the importance of the status. Attitude to other cultures Strong differences and reluctances exist between the Indian and other cultures. Indians are conservative and dont attempt to mix culturally. Jess sisters wedding shows the Indian reluctance to include other culture in their traditional ceremony. Jesss mother teaches her daughters to married Indians sharing the same values, culture and traditions. Jess will find all along the movie to evolve from those cultural practices with her relationship with her coach. British Asian Culture In the previous parts, we discussed two main cultures English and Indian. Both of the cultures have strong traditions and deep values which people are trying to keep alive today. It is not easy as everything is changing. But even harder it is for Jess who tries to honour her father Indian roots but at the same time wants to be fully accepted in the English society. This trend is called the new British Asian generation. The term British Asian is used to denote a person of South Asian ancestry or origin, who was born in or was an immigrant to the United Kingdom. Britain has a large Southern Asian population due to British India once being the most populous portion of the former British Empire. That is shown as well in the movie where Jess parents want that she attends university and gets good education as doctor. They have no problems with seeing themselves as British. Mainly they are not accepted as British from the point of old people from Britain. But at the same time they say that they do not even want to be accepted. Their first language is really English. The most important thing they have been brought up there. In addition, the young people see their way of life as different from life in India as well as from their parents. New British Asian generation do not think of gender identity. That is also the biggest issue in Bend it Like Beckham, where Jess is eager to play football. In India that is only men job. Even though Indians might have lived all their lives in Britain the differences are remaining. High expectation of loyalty to strong family is common theme among British Asians. It is seen as the biggest culture differences between Asian and English values. Basi cally if you have grown up in England, there is no family unit which at the same time is totally different for Asian families where you reflect on your family. Individualism versus family values is a dichotomy difficult to reconcile. If you are judged by who is your family or your family is judged by your actions, what do they do then, when they do not want to become doctors, lawyers or just want to smoke weed (very popular thing in UK). That is where the youth of British Asian struggle. For some it even results in exclusion from the family structures because they refuse to accept collectivism pressure. The other issue in British Asian society is marriage. Still most of traditional families want arranged marriages and assessed that those arranged marriages are quite misconceived. An arranged marriage is not a forced marriage. Religion is another British Asian issue. Even though they have grew up with very religious background the 2nd generation is more questioning and searching. They are trying to adapt it by keeping some of its values and foundations to a more modern approach. Also, the new language Asian and English form should not be seen as a mixing of heritages, but as the creation of a potential new heritage. England is a multicultural society, not a multitude of cultures living together and separately from each other. This young generation is redefining their values and reinterpreting what it is to be British. They are not British Asians. Not even British Caribbean or Caucasian. They are second generation and want to make their own mark. This attitude can be seen in the movie where Jess is bright example of British Asian representative. She proves that at the end it is possible to make happy every part of society and be happy herself. She and her British Asian friends show that they are creating their own culture from adapting their strong family values and involving their new sides of English culture. They are taking the most important element they need from both of the cultures. The Movie Genre and Structure The film combines different genres: sports movie, Coming-of-Age, music clip, but primarily British comedy and Bollywood film. These so-called Bollywood films follow the formal and substantive traditions. A key issue is the preservation of the tradition. The older family members embody the forces of tradition. As an important event, there is often an opulent and glamouros wedding-scene. Music and dance in Bollywood films push the emotions of the characters. They are also the moral censorship, because they help to disguise the love scenes. The British comedy derives its humor from the surreality of everyday life and works with a lot of wit and quick word dialogues. Many protagonists are coming from the working class and middle class, discussed their everyday problems in heavily story-line-orientated stories. Bend it like Beckham juggle with both narrative: Thematically it refers to one of the classic Bollywood themes, the conflict between tradition and modern world. The wedding in the movie is the culmination depicted, but equivalent to the other peak, the football final. This shows the film tradition and modern life with the same weighting. Again, the parents embody the classic values, the father does, however, a conversion and finally supports the willingness of change of the daughter. The conquest of a male-domain Football in Europe is the undisputed leader sport millions of people are excited about. This is true at least for the male version. Although there are now more and more female players, the womens football is not in the same form and will be hardly recognized. In the film, this conservative attitude is represented by the mothers. Jules mother is convinced that playing football diminishes the chances of their daughter in the marriage market. As there is a conversation between Jess and Jules, she even feared that the two are lesbian. Jess mother thinks that sports clothes are improper and would prefer that her daughter learn how to prepare Indian dishes. The mothers are trying to stop their daughters from playing football symbolized in the release of Jess, who sees her female family members in the wall during a freekick. Mixed Culture appearing in the movie Jesminder Bhamra (Parminder Nagra) is deeply admiring of the professional skills David Beckham exposes as a Manchester United star. Nobody can bend it like Beckham is her leitmotiv motivation. She is in a total discordance with her parents vision of her future, and her older sisters path traditionally engaged to marry within weeks. While schooling other girls, she explains that Indian girls arent supposed to play football, and is replied that Thats a bit backwards, by one of her teammates. Jess finally justifies that Its just culture, thats all. She is navigating from cultures all along the movie, looking for emotional stability, a sense of belonging and great ambitions to fulfil. The movie successfully shakes all those expectations and their challenges by shaping Jess experience. The film follows its two main characters by developing a strong panel of contrasts and similarities, exploring the divergences in their respective backgrounds, and most importantly, the ways they will achieve this absorption of traditions taught by their environment with the mix of other cultures and changing times. Through crisis and conflicts, the movie finally brings a disparate epilogue that crosscuts between a final football match and Jess sister traditional wedding. This picture shows the divergent clash of these cultures that finally converge responsively to one another in a universal approach. Music In the film the producer mixes Indian and Western pop music. The Indian music accentuated the conservative or traditional areas of life, the western represent the New Age. When Jess and Jules are shopping for the first time and having a beer in a pub, Mel C. sings Independence Day. The trip to Hamburg is musically connected with the group Blondie Your hair looks beautiful. Indian music is essential in the Hindu celebrations, but also when Jess is forced to do the kitchen work by her mother, one can hear the Indian way of music. During the parallel-creation of the wedding and the final game, first Indian and later English music is used for those scenes. The goal kick and the enthusiastic viewers are accompanied with a piece from Puccinis opera Turandot background. The movie and the cultural aspect all together Jess ´ situation based on her relationship to her family Bend it like Beckham picks a topic, which is relevant for adolescents, regardless of their cultural context. It is about the creation of self-determination and the own conceptions of life, independent from external expectations, and thus linked to questions of identity and personal values. For Jess, that leads to a special conflict, because her culture traditionally admits less freedom. From a dramaturgical perspective, it allows to enhance the universal conflict. Through the culture movement the film tells about, the understanding and tolerance for differences in other cultures are encouraged. Seemingly effortlessly the film combines conflicts, which are characterized by the close social contact of cultural values and role models, which went through strong developments in European societies over the past decades. Jess situation according her future and the realisation of her life-concept On the one hand, Jess embodies the whole dilemma of the so-called second generation, as one can see in all European countries in which the children of emigrants were born. They are linguistically and culturally much closer to the culture of occident. However they are still in contact with the original homeland and the traditions of their parents generation. For this generation it is necessary to make pioneering work, to prevent prejudices on both sides, as Jess practiced in the movie. Jess accepted the cultural values of her parents lives and also the traditional religious wedding ceremony of her sister Pinky. At the same time, Jess asks for respect to her lifestyle, but it is quite clear that her mother can never really understand, what kind of life she is trying to live. Jess has reached the allowance to play football and the relationship with her coach Joe, is the next cultural barrier that she will need to overcome.

Sport Record :: Sports Records Papers

Sport Record The founding father of the Olympic Movement, Pierre de Coubertin, referred to the sport record as having the same function in the ideology of Olympism as the principle of gravity in Newtonian mechanics (Loland 1995). The record was, so to speak, the eternal axiom of sport. No doubt, Coubertin was right in many ways. The fascination for records is a key element in our fascination for sports. Records are the stuff of which legends and myths are made. Johnny Weissmuller's 1924 one hundred meter freestyle swim under the minute, Wilma Rudolph's fabulous sprint records from the early 1960s, and Michael Johnson's explosive two hundred meter record run at the 1996 Atlanta Games, are all paradigmatic examples of Coubertin's ideals. The record stands as a symbolic message of human greatness and infinite possibility. However, as will be shown in this paper, the record idea is not unproblematic. First, sport records are defined. Second, based on critical, conceptual analyses, the logic of the record is examined and possible consequences are discussed of the continuous quest for new records. Finally, some reflections are presented on alternative lines of developments in sport in which the status of the record idea is drastically reduced. Record Sports, Quasi Record Sports, and Games A sport record is a performance, measured in exact mathematical-physical entities (meters, seconds or kilograms) within a standardized spatio-temporal framework defined by sport rules, that is better than all previous performances measured in the same way. Typical record sports are athletics, swimming, and weight lifting. Record sports have to satisfy strict requirements on both standardization of conditions and on exact measurement of performance. A series of sport disciplines satisfy one of these two criteria. In marathon running and cross-country skiing, performances are measured and compared by exact timing, but there are no standardized arenas. The Boston Marathon is rather different from the one in Oslo. The conditions and trails of cross-country ski races vary from race to race. We sometimes talk of records here, but in an inaccurate way. Disciplines with exact performance measurements but without strictly standardized frameworks can perhaps better be called quasi-record sports. Other sport disciplines have well-defined standardized spatial frameworks but do not measure performances in exact ways. In terms of arenas, soccer and tennis are more or less identical from match to match. Performances, however, are measured in non-precise entities like goals, points, sets, and games. Moreover, performances are in a sense relative as they depend upon social interaction with other competitors.

Economic Growth in South Africa Essay

1. Strategic Priority 1: Economic Growth and Job Creation. 2. Strategic Priority 2: Massive programme to build economic and social infrastructure. 3. Strategic Priority 3: Rural Development 4. Strategic Priority 4: Education 5. Strategic Priority 5: Health Question Number 2 * Priority 1- Factors beyond the control of policy-makers and stakeholders in South Africa have a big impact on the environment for growth and job creation, and it is difficult to measure achievements by outcomes only. Vulnerability to a weak and volatile global economy remains a significant challenge to job creation, although the recent depreciation of the rand may have helped to protect some jobs in export sectors. * Priority 2- Only 68% of money intended for large infrastructure projects had been spent in the last financial year. This amounts to R178-billion of the allocated R260-billion. Municipalities especially have battled to attract managers with the right skills as well as the requisite technical experts to run the projects. * Priority 3- The department has implemented the CRDP in 21 sites throughout South Africa and aims to roll this out to 160 sites by 2014. Lessons learnt from these CRDP sites indicate that the challenges in rural areas include: * underutilisation and/or unsustainable use of natural resources * poor or lack of access to socio-economic and cultural infrastructure and services, public amenities and facilities and government services * lack of access to clean water or lack of water resources for both household and agricultural development * low literacy, skills levels and migratory labour practices * decay of the social fabric * unexploited opportunities in agriculture, tourism, mining and manufacturing. * Priority 4- Nearly 70% of all South Africans are under the age of 35. Government, through the Department of Higher Education and Training, developed a strategy to increase the ratio of young people that are in education, employment or training by 2014/15. The aim of this strategy is to strengthen the capacity of the education and training system to provide pivotal programmes to a growing number of young post-school learners as well as adults at turning points in their careers. * Priority 5- Several areas of progress have been identified, especially in terms of reducing the effect of childhood illnesses. Improving immunisation coverage ranks high among renowned strategies for improving child health. Immunisation campaigns have been markedly successful in preventable diseases, including polio and measles. Carefully planned and systemic interventions, based on the Negotiated Service Delivery Agreement objectives, have been adopted for child health. Question Number 3 * Priority 1-The main objective is to respond appropriately, promptly and effectively so that growth in decent employment and improvements in income security are reinforced, and investment sustained to build up national economic capability and improve industrial competitiveness. * Priority 2 – Poor infrastructure and poor access to basic services are a result of weak and under-resourced rural local government, as well as a lack of coordination between all the departments involved in service delivery in rural areas. Essential services are also generally less available and of poorer quality in rural areas, rendering these places unattractive for people to live and work. As a result, manypeople in the economically active age group migrate, and the rural economy stagnates. * Priority 3-Between 10 and 15 million South Africans live in areas that are characterised by extreme poverty and underdevelopment. Recognising the diversity of our rural areas, the overall objective is to develop and implement a comprehensive strategy of rural development that will be aimed at improving the quality of life of rural households, enhancing the country’s food security through a broader base of agricultural production, and exploiting the varied economic potential that each region of the country enjoys. * Priority 4-The objective is to focus skills and education system towards the delivery of quality outcomes. The focus will be on, amongst others, learner outcomes, early childhood development (ECD), improving schools management and M&E systems and supporting and developing a high quality teaching profession * Priority 5- Government’s priority is to improve the health status of the entire population and contribute to the vision of a long and healthy life for all South Africans. To accomplish this vision, government has identified four strategic outputs which the health sector must achieve. These are: * increasing life expectancy * decreasing maternal and child mortality   * combating HIV and AIDS and decreasing the burden of tuberculosis (TB) * strengthening health-system effectiveness. Question Number 4 * Priority 1- The government has pursued trade liberalization and privatization as part of its attempts to overcome constraints on growth. In his budget speech for 2011–12, on February 23, 2011, the South African Minister of Finance Pravin Gordhan called the budget an attempt to generate growth and a high quality of life for all South Africans. * Priority 2- In the period ahead, government will continue with the investment programme aimed at expanding and improving social and economic infrastructure to increase access, quality and reliability of public services and to support economic activities while also considering environmental sustainability and pursuing maximum employment impact. * Priority 3- The aim is to ensure sustained investment growth over the medium-term so as to achieve the target of a fixed investment ratio above 25% of GDP by 2014. Such projects will be spatially-referenced, planned for and implemented in an integrated manner. In addition, we will continue with programmes to provide and maintain health, education, library, sporting, recreation and other social infrastructure. * Priority 4- Education has enjoyed the largest share of the national budget throughout the past 15 years. This significant investment in building human capital and capabilities has gradually improved the country’s human resource and skills base. However, progress has not been optimal and the achievements have not taken place on the required scale. * Priority 5- Elements of our strategy include the phasing in of a National Health Insurance system over the next five years and increasing institutional capacities to deliver health-system functions and initiate major structural reforms to improve the management of health services at all levels of healthcare delivery, including particularly hospitals. Question Number 5 * Priority 1- almost 60 000 jobs created by the Department of Trade and Industry’s support and incentive programmes in 2010/11. Also a rural youth-employment programme, has created 7 500 jobs. * Priority 2- The number of passengers accommodated at national airports grew from 16,8 million in 2008/09 to 18,3 million in 2011/12, at an average annual rate of 3%, and is expected to grow to 23 million in 2014/15 at a rate of 7,7%. The number of aircraft landing at airports throughout South Africa increased from 279 515 in 2008/09 to 290 648 in 2011/12, at an average annual rate of 1% and is expected to increase to 340 285 in 2014/15, growing at an average annual rate of 5,7%. * Priority 3- The Comprehensive Rural Development Programme (CRDP) has been developed as a multi sectoral response to the challenge of rural development, addressing basic human needs, as well as the provision of social and economic infrastructure and the development of small and medium enterprises, using an agri-village model. Under the agri-village model, housing, sanitation, health, education and other basic services are provided to an agricultural village. In addition, there should be sustainable agriculture-related income-generating activities in the village. A participatory needs analysis is undertaken involving rural people and different sectors.The programme is being implemented as a pilot programme. By 2011 it had covered 80 of a 2012 target of 160 wards across the country. Furthermore, 1 300 household gardens and cooperatives have been established. * Priority 4- In 2011, the national Grade 12 pass rate was 70,2%, compared to 67,8% the previous year. The national Department of Basic Education set aside R8 billion over a period of three years to replace mud and inappropriate structures and 119 new schools were completed in 2010 as multi-year projects. In the 2011/12 financial year, over 3 322 students were supported with bursaries to study at Higher Education and Further Education and Training (FET) institutions. Through the Human Resource Development Council initiatives, 90 FET college lecturers were trained at the universities of Fort Hare, Walter Sisulu and Nelson Mandela Metropolitan. * Priority 5- Over 2 100 individual infrastructure-related projects exist in health facilities in South Africa – ranging from maintenance and minor repairs to renovation and major construction works. As a result, 138 clinics and 38 community health centres were constructed nationally (an increase of 4% in the total number of PHC facilities in South Africa). .

Analyzing “Deculturization”

Deculturalization refers to the â€Å"stripping away of a people's culture and replacing it with a new culture† (Spring 1). Deculturalization is one of the most inhumane acts one can partake in. A person's culture is his/her main defining feature. Culture is the medium through which people communicate their beliefs, values, and morals. Inserting one's own culture in place of someone's pre-existing culture is the basis of ethnocentrism. People have repeatedly become victims of deculturalization, especially in the United States, and by analyzing this ethnocentrism one learns the importance of sustaining different cultures in society. There are many methods of deculturalization, such as segregation, isolation, and forced change of language. When the content of curriculum reflects culture of dominant group, it is deculturalization. Also, dominated groups are not allowed to express their culture and religion, which is deculturalization. Use of teachers from the dominant group to teach those that are dominated is another form of deculturalization (Spring 49).†The problem was the assumption that U.S. institutions, customs, and beliefs were the best in the world and they should be imposed† (Spring 42). Throughout much of the past century, the United States sought to stamp its cultural ideal upon almost all peoples who existed within its realm of influence. It is only through the relatively modern ideology of multiculturalism and the celebration of diversity that the United States has begun to make amends for the injustices it has committed on other cultures. Today, with multiculturalism entering into the classrooms and other realms, different cultures are finally getting the attention they deserve. The American idea of cultural and racial superiority began in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with the colonization of northeast America by predominantly Anglo Saxon colonists. Ironically, the colonists came to America to escape persecution for their religious beliefs. The Anglo Saxon attitude of cultural superiority was a largely Protestant value that remained prevalent for much of the twentieth century (Spring 2-4). The educational impact of this elitist attitude was far-reaching. The most immediate effects were seen in the destruction of Native American culture and peoples. Efforts to ‘civilize' the Native Americans through the use of schooling began in 1819 and continued until the late 1920's. The first schools were the result of Christian missionaries' efforts to gain converts. English was the only language spoken in these schools, and the Native American culture was looked upon poorly. Some earlier efforts were made to adapt to Native American culture, including the development of a written Cherokee language. This knowledge, however, was used to impart Anglo-Protestant values and religion (Spring 18-21). Out of almost all of the other cultures, Native Americans are the most exploited. Not only was their culture subverted and their people forced to move, but also the Native Americans still today are trying to regain their cultural identity. It was only during the late 20's that the effects of this cultural genocide became apparent. With the Meriam Report, published in 1928, the inhumane treatment of Native Americans was brought to the public eye, and this made way for the establishment of progressive day schools where Native Americans could integrate their culture. Ever since, Native Americans have struggled to regain an identity of their culture. Along with Native Americans, some of the same injustices were inflicted upon Puerto Rico where the same rules of deculturalization applied to the education systems. Puerto Rico became a colony of the United States in the 1890's as a result of the Spanish-American War. The apparent Americanization of Puerto Rico centered in the schools where patriotic exercises emphasized American allegiance. English became the official language of the schools, and English proficiency became a qualification to obtain a Puerto Rican teaching license. The Puerto Ricans resisted this deculturalization, causing strong tension in the 1920's, while they struggled to declare independence. Eventually, attempts at deculturalization fell beneath global civil rights movements in the 1950's and 1960's. Despite this, the educational system of Puerto Rico was severely limited for many years. During the same time that the Puerto Ricans were struggling to regain their national culture and heritage, African Americans were struggling to overcome centuries of racial discrimination. Early in the 20th century, most African Americans seemed helplessly mired in a class system that sought to keep them poorly educated to provide a supply of cheap labor. W.E.B. DuBois, founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, wanted to provide a different type of education for African Americans that would focus on encouraging leadership and protection of the legal and social rights of their communities. These schools would also create a constant awareness of their position within the white majority. DuBois saw great potential in the education of teachers because, once educated, they could impart their learning to countless others (Spring 67). DuBois' dream seemed to be achieved in the 1930's when common schools for African American children were finally erected. Although a large part of the funding was donated, black parents contributed the majority of the funds. While this was a great step forward for African American children, these schools later provided the rationale for segregation outside of the often better-funded white schools. Asian Americans were the largest group affected b the Naturalization Act of 1790, where non-white immigrants were excluded from American citizenship. A ‘white person' was an immigrant from Western Europe; no other groups were considered ‘white.' With the Anglo-Americans feeling threatened by the Chinese Americans, they sought to limit immigration through legislation. Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, prohibiting Chinese immigration. The Chinese Americans were sent to segregated schools because they were not classified as a ‘white' person. This policy of segregation broke down by the early 1900's, when the board of education had to let Chinese youths attend the regular city high school. After the United States conquest of Mexico, the attitude of racial, religious, and cultural superiority was reflected on both the treatment of Mexicans who remained in American after the conquest and later Mexican immigrants. Segregated schools, housing, and discrimination in employment became the Mexican American heritage. President James Polk sent an army to protect the Texas border, causing a military reaction by Mexico which resulted in the U.S. declaring war on Mexico. The war allowed former Mexican citizens to obtain U.S. citizenship, but did nothing to resolve problems of the Anglo Americans feelings of superiority. One of the important consequences of this negative action against Mexicans was to make it easier for American settlers to gain land in the area. Racism served as a justification for economic exploitation. These racist attitudes permeated the life of the cattle ranches established in southern Texas during what is referred to as the â€Å"cowboy era† (Spring 80). This deculturalization of the Mexican Americans is yet another example of the ethnocentrism that engulfed Anglo Americans. Deculturalization has been a very sad occurrence since the beginning of America, and only recently has this problem started to be alleviated. The impacts of deculturalization have been very negative on society, but mostly on the education system. Today, teacher education revolves around multiculturalism and valuing the differences in cultures. Until this idea reaches all realms of society, however, the United States will not be completely free from the negative aspects of deculturalization, which swept through the country for many years. Knowledge is half the battle, though, and the more people are educated on other cultures, the more people will begin to appreciate other cultures.

The Crucible Essays - The Crucible, John Proctor, Tituba

The Crucible Essays - The Crucible, John Proctor, Tituba The Crucible The Crucible In 1692, in Salem Massachusetts, the superstition of witches existed in a society of strong Christian beliefs. Anybody who acted out of the ordinary was accused of being a witch and then the accused would actually be forgiven if the blamed their accusations on another individual. This was the main idea of a play entitled, The Crucible by Arthur Miller. In this play a group of young girls act up and are then accused of being witches. These girls then blame other people in order to get out of trouble and even pretend to be bewitched in front of the court during a trial. This leads into the deaths of some innocent people who were accused and automatically found guilty. I believe, in many ways the people of Salem were responsible for the witch hysteria. The person with the most influence was the character, Abigail. Abigail had an affair with a man by the name of John Proctor. Proctor broke contact with Abigail and spent time and interest in his wife, Elizabeth. Abigail gets jealous because of this and Abigail, a few other girls, and a servant from the Caribbean named Tituba dance around in an order that they believe it will kill Proctors wife. Rev. Parris, Abigails uncle, sees this and reports it. When Abigail is questioned about this, she denies everything and doesnt tell the truth about what really happened. The news of her and the other girls strange actions gets around and the hysteria starts. Without Abigails superstition, and her fear or telling the truth, I think the events in The Crucible wouldnt have gotten as serious as they did or even started. John Proctor was another catalyst to the witch hysteria in Salem. John Proctor has an affair with Abigail, but he and his wife do make up and get along well. John Proctor adds to the hysteria when he and his wife are talking about Abigail and why she is acting so oddly. Although John Proctor knows she is making up everything and blaming innocent people, he is reluctant to travel to Salem and testify her as a fraud to the court. If he would have done this, the witch trials could have stopped there. Another way John Proctor could have contributed to this madness but his moral didnt let him occurs when at the end of Act IV he says he will confess to the law who he saw with the devil in order to save himself from dying or from imprisonment. Fortunately, John Proctor realizes this is wrong and he does not give the confession and he hangs because of it. Although eventually John Proctor did add to the hysteria a little, he still helped it stop. The last person I think was played a big part in the spirit of the witch hysteria is Governor Danforth. Danforth was a big part of the actual trials and his court system was very brutal and uncivilized, in fact he said, If you are not with the court, you are against it which basically means in my opinion, if you are on trial and you dont believe what the court believes then you are guilty. His words in this sentence where a huge part of the conclusion on what eventually happened to the girls and all that were involved. The court believed they were all witches and they really had no chance to prove them wrong. Danforth contributed to the hysteria another way in the method that he used to judge who was guilty in terms of evidence. He believed word of mouth more than actual proven evidence, mostly because he wanted these trials over fast and he wanted it to turn out the way he wanted the trails to end. Without Danforth's ignorant court procedures and weak justice system, the trails would have gone much better and the truth of the hysteria would have most likely been uncovered. The ignorance and superstition of the people of Salem were responsible for the witch hysteria. I believe that this kind of hysteria could never exist in a society like I live in today. Todays courts are much better than the theocratic church/courts of the late 1600s. Another thing to consider is that our Declaration of Independence

Special Education Teaching Strategy Lists for Success

Special Education Teaching Strategy Lists for Success There are many practical strategies that are effective in the classroom. It is up to the classroom and special education teacher to ensure that appropriate strategies are being used  to assist individual learning styles and allow all students with special needs  to succeed. It is recommended that a multi-modal approach be used: visual, auditory, kinesthetic and tactile for optimum success. Classroom Environment Provide the use of a study carrel when necessary.Seat student in an area free from distractions.Eliminate all unnecessary materials from the students desk to reduce distractions.Use a checklist to help the student get organized.Keep an extra supply of pencils, pens, books, and paper in the classroom.You may have to allow the student frequent breaks.Have an agreed upon cue for the student to leave the classroom.Reduce visual distractions in the classroom. Time Management and Transitions Space short work periods with breaks.Provide additional time to complete assignment.Allow extra time for homework completion.Inform student with several reminders, several minutes apart, before changing from one activity to the next.Reduce the amount of work from the usual assignment.Provide a specific place for turning in assignments. Presentation of Materials Modify expectations based on students needs.Break assignments into segments of shorter tasks.Give alternative assignments rather than long written assignments.Provide a model of the end product.Provide written and verbal direction with visuals if possible.Break long assignments into small sequential steps, monitoring each step.Highlight to alert student attention to key points within the written direction of the assignment.Check that all homework assignments are written correctly in some kind of an agenda/homework book. Sign it and have parents sign it as well.Number and sequence steps in a task.Provide outlines, study guides, copies of overhead notes.Explain learning expectations to the student before beginning a lesson.Make sure you have the students attention before beginning a lesson.Allow for the student to use tape recorders, computers, calculators and dictation to obtain and retain assignment success.Allow oral administration of test.Limit the number of concepts presented at o ne time. Provide incentives for beginning and completing material. Assessment, Grading, and Testing Provide a quiet setting for test taking, allow tests to be scribed if necessary and allowing for oral responses.Exempt student from district-wide testing if possible.Divide the test into small sections.Grade spelling separately from content.Allow as much time as needed to complete.Avoid time test.Change the percentage of work required for passing grade.Permit retaking the test.Provide monitored breaks from testing. Behavior Avoid confrontations and power struggles.Provide an appropriate peer role model.Modify rules that may discriminate against a student with a neurological disorder.Develop a system or code that will let the student know when behavior is not appropriate.Ignore attention seeking behaviors that are not disruptive to the classroom.Arrange a designated safe place that student can go to.Develop a code of conduct for the classroom and visually display it in an appropriate place where all students can see it, review it frequently.Develop a behavior intervention plan that is realistic and easily applied.Provide immediate reinforcers and feedback. Delivering an academic program to a room full of unique students is certainly a challenge. Implementing some of the listed strategies will provide a comfortable learning place for all students regardless of their academic abilities.

Coup de fil - French Expression

Coup de fil - French Expression Expression: Un coup de filPronunciation: [koo d(eu) feel]Meaning: phone call​Literal translation: line hitRegister: informalNotes: The French expression un coup de fil is an informal* term for a phone call, and its usually used with one of three verbs: donner un coup de fil ( quelquun) -to make a phone call, to give (someone) a call passer un coup de fil ( quelquun) -to make a phone call, to give (someone) a call recevoir un coup de fil (de quelquun) -to receive/get a phone call (from someone) Examples   Ã‚  Ã‚  Passe-moi / Donne-moi un coup de fil  !  Ã‚  Ã‚  Give me a call!  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jai reà §u un coup de fil de mon frà ¨re.  Ã‚  Ã‚  I got a call from my brother, My brother called me.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Juste un coup de fil et je pars.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Just a phone call and Im leaving. (I just have to make a phone call and then Im leaving). Synonyms   Ã‚  Ã‚  *The normal (as opposed to informal) terms are un coup de tà ©là ©phone, un appel, and un appel tà ©là ©phonique.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Other ways to say to call (someone) are passer/donner un coup de tà ©là ©phone ( quelquun), tà ©là ©phoner ( quelquun), and appeler (quelquun). More Expressions with donnerExpressions with passerExpressions with coupExpressions with deOn the phoneMost common French phrases

The Innovator's Dilemma Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Innovator's Dilemma - Case Study Example ive technologies on incumbent firms, it would be prudent for the organization to balance its product portfolio by having both high-growth and low-growth products. Here, one could look at the 2.5† drive as the low-growth product and the 1.8† as the high-growth product. Also, as Christensen (Para 38) says most incumbents fail because of delay in making the strategic commitment to enter the emerging market. Choosing to offer the 1.8† drive now the organization lessens the likelihood of failing if the 1.8† turns out to be a disruptive technology. Christensen (Para 27) says that established firms are the leading innovators in literally every other sustaining innovations in the drive industrys history. Merely investing in a new technology for fear that it could be a disruptive technology would be a waste of scarce resources. Those resources would be better spent in critically analysing the market. In today’s rapidly changing business environment, the company should not merely focus on their current customers but on their non-consumers as well. The company should find out if there are ways that it could meet the needs of its non-consumers and then invest in developing that market. If developing the 1.8† would enable it to capture this new market, and if the market’s projections imply that it is sustainable then it should invest in the 1.8†. Otherwise, the company should not venture into making the 1.8

Journals Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Journals - Coursework Example ould consider transferring part of share premium to profits for the company to comply with the law and be able to utilize the available finances to pay dividends and as such be able to acquire further finances from shareholders. Lack of debentures and loan notes means that the company is entirely financed through share capital. Gearing ratio= (Long term debt short term debt+ bank overdrafts / shareholders equity). A high gearing ratio means the company is mainly financed through debt capital. However, low gearing ratio indicates that a company is financed mostly by share capital. The problem of financing a company mostly by share capital is that in the event of poor performance whereby a company continuously makes losses, the shareholder may decline to commit their monies further in such a business (Ariff and Hassan, 2008). Nevertheless, the company can acquire finances from other providers of capital if it has a mixed debt structure. Profitability ratios determine the ability of a business to generate profits after netting all the expenses incurred during the year. A high ratio is indicative of good performance whereas lower rate shows the business is performing poorly. These ratios include: Gross profit is difference obtained between sales turnover and cost of goods or services. The higher the gross margin, the more profit a company charges for its goods. The ratio of 0.31 is quite small in relation to sales made. This means the company is charging very low margins. This ratio captures gives the figure of how much a company makes or loses from its sales. Primarily, it indicates company’s level of performance as it accounts other components of operating income other than cost of sales. The ratio of 0.09 indicates the profits are relatively low compared to sales made. This ratio is also commonly known as quick ratio. It measures the current liquidity position of a company. This is achieved by weighing the current assets against current liabilities (Kaminski

A River Runs Through IT Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A River Runs Through IT - Movie Review Example The film ends with Norman becoming an English teacher and dating Jessie. Paul becomes a successful journalist, but his foul dealings of drinking and gambling lead to his death. This paper is a response to the movie A river runs through it. Tom’s is the role of a stern father and a Presbyterian minister who will stop at nothing but have his children grow up in a proper manner. He sees to it that his sons have something constructive to do at all times. In the morning, they go to school, midmorning to religious classes and in the evenings to do fly-fishing. To him, all the three activities are the same things. During fishing, Norman and Paul add onto their divine attributes. They understand the importance of grace, harmony and patience as they wait to make a catch. Additionally, Tom wants his children to learn spiritual relationship between faith and nature. I think my relationship with my father relates to Tom’s relationship with his family. While Tom is a stern father wh o wants his children to grow up in the right way, my father is equally stern and will do anything to make sure that I grow up in the right way. He wants me to go to church every time there is an opportunity, as he believes, like Tom, that religion moulds people to be good people in the future. Although we do not go fly-fishing in my place, we are usually encouraged to go skating and playing basketball. I believe my dad when he tells us to use our time constructively since it keeps us off doing bad things. Additionally, remaining active makes us discover our talents. Just like Norman, I am the eldest in our family and my father makes sure that I take care of my younger brothers and sisters when we are out. Although my younger siblings are now grown up and responsible for their own actions, I am always held accountable, like Norman, to their actions. However, I like it since it makes me grow responsible with time. It is unfortunate that Paul chose to drop all the religious attributes that he had learned and chose to drink and gamble instead. It seems that there were no values at all learnt by Paul or rather he erodes them through his way of life. The movie depicts that abundant life is a matter of the little choices we make every day that give us true happiness. Although Paul enjoyed in his drinking sprees with his friends, this was not true happiness and he was headed for doom. Paul represents the people in the family who refuse to follow family values and end up less productive and useful in life. My cousin, just like Paul, became hooked on online video gaming when he went to college. He was not able to concentrate on his studies in the first two years and in the process got poor grades. We could not understand why he changed to such a destructive behaviour despite being brought up on good family values. Although he seemed to enjoy gaming just as Paul enjoyed drinking with his friends, I do not think that he was having true happiness. Paul was just having an i llusion that he was having the best of life when he was drinking. Likewise, my cousin thought he was having fun with gaming. Luckily, my cousin realised his bad and destructive behaviour when he went to third year and started concentrating on his studies. Otherwise, he would have ended up destroyed just like Paul. In conclusion, the movie A river runs through it leaves a long lasting impression in the mind of the viewers. The movie is indeed one of the best movies that teach the importance of good values in life. The film is a good

The Vikings Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Vikings - Research Paper Example The Vikings abandoned their homes and travelled into Europe and settled there. However, there is no vivid explanation of what made the Scandinavians to leave their homelands permanently to settle abroad. The Vikings left their Scandinavian homelands and expanded across Western Europe and they also traded with locals and raided coastal regions and as a result of their intense contact, many words across Europe have Scandinavian. Initially, the Vikings were exclusively fishermen and farmers and throughout the Viking age, farming and fishing were the key activities practiced during this era. These individuals took advantage of fertile soils and well-stocked fishing grounds to ensure that they produce enough food for consumption. Most of them were farmers and some of the crops they cultivated include barley and oats plus a variety of fruits and vegetables. In addition, they raised livestock including goats, pigs, cattle and sheep and they as well practiced crafting as they had the ability to make use of raw materials to make various tools and equipments they needed. Moreover, they built long and slender ships called longboats which they used for raiding and shorter and broader ships known as knorrs for trading activities and they built a small rowing boat for fishing. In the Vikings society, those in the upper class were referred to as jarls and they were followed by a class of farmers and craftsmen who were called Karls, however, the lower class was occupied by the slaves also called thralls.

Scar by Amy Tan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Scar by Amy Tan - Essay Example The author emphasizes this when she states â€Å"In those days a ghost was anything we were forbidden to talk about† (Tan 291).This is clearly illustrated in the case of An-mei’s mother, who is disowned by her family for running off to be a concubine and refusing dowry from An-mei’s father. An-mei grows up hearing her grandmother constantly talking ill of her mother and she perceives her to be a â€Å"thoughtless woman who laughed and shook her head, who dipped her chopsticks many times to eat another piece of sweet fruit, happy to be free of Popo, her unhappy husband on the wall, and her two disobedient children (Tan 292 ).† Tan’s short narrative â€Å"Scar† builds on the themes of unconditional love and respect, by using symbolism and figurative language, among other literary elements. As a child, An-mei’s mother comes to visit and a commotion arises. A giant pot of boiling broth spills and burns the little girl’s chin and neck. The boiling soup is symbolic of the family’s raging anger towards An-mei’s mother for becoming a concubine and dishonoring them. The burn results in a physical scar, hence the title of the short story. However, the term scar is also symbolic since it signifies the emotional harm suffered by the little girl, as well as, the bad memories of her mother instilled in her by the grandmother. The prevalent theme in the short story is that of unconditional love. For instance, in the course of the story An-mei’s grandmother becomes seriously sick and her young girl’s mother comes back. In spite of everything that she had been told by her grandmother and the constant absence of her mother, she grows to love her. This is evident when she says â€Å"I came to love this mother as well, not because she came to m e and begged me to forgive her† (Tan 294). An-mei recognizes the fact that her mother is not to blame entirely for her absence. She also realizes that her mother never stopped loving her even after being expelled from the community. Tan illustrates this illustration when An-mei says when â€Å"Here is how I came to love my mother, how I saw her in my own true nature, what was beneath my skin, inside my bones† (Tan 294). The narrative also elaborates on the theme of respect. This is attributable to the fact that people should respect their elders regardless of the situations they are in. This is shown by An-mei‘s depiction of respect towards her mother when she sacrifices herself to Popo even after disownment. An-mei‘s mom also shows respect to Popo by looking after her even through the last living moments of her life. Respect was an issue that affected many people in China and despite the fact that An-mei did not really know her mother; she respected her and valued her actions towards her grandmother. The author’s narrative skills once more unfold yet another theme of traditions and identity. This is clearly depicted in honoring of Popo by following the ancient and acceptable way. This is done in an effort to save Popo from dying and An-mei's mother shows the respect of traditions and identity by making a sacrifice. Despite the fact that there is no good form of communication between Popo and An-mei's mother, she does not abandon her. In contrary, she cuts off part of her flesh in attempt to enrich Popo’s soup so as to heal her (Tan 295). This theme is further elaborated when An-mei realize the real meaning of the sacrifice that is conducted by the mother. In order to fully determine one's identity and heritage, one should symbolically peel off their

Economic Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Economic Critique - Essay Example In principle, they would push the excess or extra tax to the customers and buyers of their products and services. Conventionally, the increase in princes due to increased taxation implies that the level of goods demanded would reduce since the people would not be in any position to buy. The law of equilibrium demands that for the markets or economy to clear, then demand ought to be equal to supply of goods or services. If the demand would reduce then the supply would also reduce in equal proportion. In the recent past, the Obama administration and the government at large has been pushing for a change in the fiscal policy relating to reduction in general taxes levied to the people especially those of the poor classes. This move or fiscal move is expansionary in nature. This is the situation where the government seeks to reduce the level of taxes that is levied to people especially the poor people in move aimed at cushioning them against the hard economic times of the current day and age. John Keynes as a pioneer economist and thinker advocated for the expansionary policy where the government reduces the taxes levied on the citizens to cushion them during inflation or times of economic anomie. In the field of economics, this expansionary move is taken and aimed at reducing the budget surplus and get the economy back to recovery path. On the contrary, the classical view is slightly different relative to the above position and stance. The classical economists are of the opinion that the expansionary moves and policies are completely unnecessary and would create an unnecessary disturbance on the economy. This is so because the classical economists believe that there are necessary and appropriate mechanisms in the market or economy which would correct and clear the market and economy on their own. This is to say that the market has

Scar by Amy Tan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Scar by Amy Tan - Essay Example The author emphasizes this when she states â€Å"In those days a ghost was anything we were forbidden to talk about† (Tan 291).This is clearly illustrated in the case of An-mei’s mother, who is disowned by her family for running off to be a concubine and refusing dowry from An-mei’s father. An-mei grows up hearing her grandmother constantly talking ill of her mother and she perceives her to be a â€Å"thoughtless woman who laughed and shook her head, who dipped her chopsticks many times to eat another piece of sweet fruit, happy to be free of Popo, her unhappy husband on the wall, and her two disobedient children (Tan 292 ).† Tan’s short narrative â€Å"Scar† builds on the themes of unconditional love and respect, by using symbolism and figurative language, among other literary elements. As a child, An-mei’s mother comes to visit and a commotion arises. A giant pot of boiling broth spills and burns the little girl’s chin and neck. The boiling soup is symbolic of the family’s raging anger towards An-mei’s mother for becoming a concubine and dishonoring them. The burn results in a physical scar, hence the title of the short story. However, the term scar is also symbolic since it signifies the emotional harm suffered by the little girl, as well as, the bad memories of her mother instilled in her by the grandmother. The prevalent theme in the short story is that of unconditional love. For instance, in the course of the story An-mei’s grandmother becomes seriously sick and her young girl’s mother comes back. In spite of everything that she had been told by her grandmother and the constant absence of her mother, she grows to love her. This is evident when she says â€Å"I came to love this mother as well, not because she came to m e and begged me to forgive her† (Tan 294). An-mei recognizes the fact that her mother is not to blame entirely for her absence. She also realizes that her mother never stopped loving her even after being expelled from the community. Tan illustrates this illustration when An-mei says when â€Å"Here is how I came to love my mother, how I saw her in my own true nature, what was beneath my skin, inside my bones† (Tan 294). The narrative also elaborates on the theme of respect. This is attributable to the fact that people should respect their elders regardless of the situations they are in. This is shown by An-mei‘s depiction of respect towards her mother when she sacrifices herself to Popo even after disownment. An-mei‘s mom also shows respect to Popo by looking after her even through the last living moments of her life. Respect was an issue that affected many people in China and despite the fact that An-mei did not really know her mother; she respected her and valued her actions towards her grandmother. The author’s narrative skills once more unfold yet another theme of traditions and identity. This is clearly depicted in honoring of Popo by following the ancient and acceptable way. This is done in an effort to save Popo from dying and An-mei's mother shows the respect of traditions and identity by making a sacrifice. Despite the fact that there is no good form of communication between Popo and An-mei's mother, she does not abandon her. In contrary, she cuts off part of her flesh in attempt to enrich Popo’s soup so as to heal her (Tan 295). This theme is further elaborated when An-mei realize the real meaning of the sacrifice that is conducted by the mother. In order to fully determine one's identity and heritage, one should symbolically peel off their

Improving Health Care Quality & Patient Safety in an Acute Care Essay

Improving Health Care Quality & Patient Safety in an Acute Care Setting - Essay Example , traditionally dealt with through focus on mistakes from individuals, are now accepted to result, not from human error alone, but also from failure of systems. For this reason, it is important to maintain safety and quality of healthcare in acute settings. Preventable adverse effects, in particular, are believed to be because of systemic and latent failures in care-delivery systems. The key to ensuring safety and quality in acute healthcare settings is using defense mechanisms, which can identify and interrupt situations that could be dangerous (Healy, 2009). One example of this in an acute clinical setting is the systematic surveillance of patients by nurses that may serve, as a defense mechanism to stop dangerous situations, as well as strategies for error recovery. There are several key challenges that face quality and patient safety in acute settings. Systemic factors like underuse of technology in existence, failure to include family and patient in making decisions, poor collaboration from healthcare members, inadequate resources, and poor staffing is one of them. Another challenge has to do, with human factors like the skills and education of nurses, to implement quality and safety strategies (Healy, 2009). Novice nurses, especially, are overwhelmed by time and task constraints, which prevent them from integrating the â€Å"big picture† that effective improvement of quality and patient safety in acute care settings requires. Resources like data access and time are vital in the performance of comprehensive assessments. Healthcare workers who are interrupted, distracted, or responsible for functions that are not related to nursing will not have enough time to devote to this improvement. Collaboration, which is essential to this improve ment, especially with patients and their families, has influence on acute patients’ outcomes (Healy, 2009). Policies or unit structures that are not conducive to this collaboration impedes on the process, as well as adversely

Defence Logistics Organisation Analysis for War Suitability

Defence Logistics Organisation Analysis for War Suitability CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Historically, nation states have used military power as an instruement of state to achieve their national aims objectives. Towards that end, logistics along with strategy and tactics constitute an important sub division of the practical art of war fighting [1]. It therefore evolves upon students of military history to grasp the nuances of logistics, the way it affects the very essence of modern, contemporary war fighting philosophy. To begin with, it is not incorrect to say that the military activity known as logistics is probably as old as war itself. The word logistics is derived from the Greek adjective, logistikus meaning skilled in calculating. Research indicates that the first use of the word with reference to an organised military administrative service was by the French writer Jomini who served as a staff officer in Napoleons army. In 1838, he set down logistics as one of the six branches of the military art, the other five being statesmanship in its relationship to war, strategy or art of properly directing masses upon the theatre of war, grand tactics, engineering and minor tactics. He included the phrase it is the execution of strategic and tactical enterprises in his definition of logistics. In short, he devised a theory of war upon the trinity of strategy, ground tactics and logistics. He defined it as practical art of moving armies [2]. Based on the experience gained over the years, the term was redefined in 1968 wherein Logistics was referred to as the art and science of creating and maintaining a military capability. It consists of the process of determining requirements, acquisitions, distributions and maintenance of materials. As regards, our Indian manuals, they define logistics as the science of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of forces[3]. In todays usage, logistics is the function of providing all the material and services that a military force needs in Peace or War. Logistics, therefore, covers a wide canvas broadly includes all military activities, other than strategy and tactics. It would therefore, be prudent to refer to logistics as the bridge between our combat troops and the industry natural resources of our country. Logistics perse is a key element of Doctrine, too, which describes it as a process that consists of planning and executing the movement and sustenance of operating forces in executing a military strategy and operations. It is essentially moving, supplying and maintaining military forces and is basic to the ability of armies, fleets and air forces to operate indeed to exist. It has a direct bearing on a countrys capability to support a national strategy [4]. As the rapidly evolving modern battlefield milieu transforms into short, intense and technologically intensive wars, the over bearing need for a fool proof and highly responsive logistic organizational structure for Indian Army to meet the logistic imperatives of a short war cannot be over emphasized. Our existing logistics system has been inherited from the British. Though the logistic system in general and the logistic organisation in particular have been subjected to numerous improvements and changes over the last six decades, the logistic system perse has failed to evolve with changing times and has more or less retained its archaic character. The major, Mathew[5] reason for the antiquated character of our logistic system is the flawed organisational structure which inhibits and precludes optimum utilisation of our well developed and vast national logistic capacities. Restructuring of our existing defence logistics organisation, therefore, is a pre-requisite to restructure our logistic system to meet the logistic imperatives of a short war. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem To study and analyse the existing defence logistics organisation and to ascertain its suitability to meet the logistics imperatives of a short war. Hypothesis Our existing defence logistics organization is based on archaic concepts and will not be able to deliver adequately in a short war. Scope The scope of this study is restricted to analysis of the existing defence logistics organisation and to suggest a viable and responsive organisational structure that can meet the logistics imperatives of a short war. Methods of Data Collection. The data and information has been gathered from books, journals, periodicals, internet sites and also from own exposure and experience. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the text. CHAPTER III LIMITED / SHORT WAR IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT AND ITS IMPERATIVES War has been the single most important instruement by which most of the great facts of human history have been accomplished and maintained. It has been used as an instruement against aggression as also as an instruement of aggression itself. It has played the most dominant role in nearly all important crisis of humankind ; it has been used to achieve liberty, to ensure democracy as also in building great empires and in enforcing dictatorships. The term war today has come to include many more kinds of hostile activities ; limited war, short war, total war, cold war, hot war, propaganda war, psychological war, ground war, space war as also various other low -intensity conflicts such as guerilla war and fourth generation warfare. Thus war today is not only far more horrifying and a far more complex affair, it has also come to pervade all other aspects of mans social life [6]. Limited War The concept of limited war goes back to the 19th century when miitary theorists underscored the determinative relationship between political ends and military means. Both 19th century theorist Clausewitz and his 20th century successor Liddell Hart were committed advocates of the use of limited war or limited force as opposed to total war. In the 19th century, when concepts of blitzkrieg and wars of annihilation dominated military thoughts and policies, Clausewitz opposed such concepts. He stated, Political objectives, as the original motives of the war, should be the standard for determining both the aim of the military force and also the aim of effort to be made. With the advancement in automatic warfare in the middle of World War II, Liddell Hart realised that because of the destructive nature of the weapons, wars should be limited; however, he did not advocate limited war as a strategy. Later after the development of nuclear weapons, Liddell Hart came up with the concept of limite d war. He said, Where both sides possess atomic power, total war makes nonsense and any unlimited war waged with atomic power would make worse than nonsense; it would be mutually suicidal. He goes on to say any total war, or even the preparation for it, is likely to carry more evils in its train, without bearing any good promise in the event of victory [7]. Robert E Osgood defined limited war as A limited war is one in which the belligerents restrict the purpose for which they fight to concrete, well defined objectives that do not demand the utmost military effort of which the belligerents are capable and that can be accommodated in a negotiated settlement. The battle is confined to a local geographical area and directed against selected targets primarily those of direct military importance. It permits their economic, social and political patterns of existence to continue without serious disruption. In another study, Osgood defines limited war as a war that was to be fought for ends far short of the complete subordination of one states will to anothers using means that involve far less than the total military resources of the belligerents and leave the civilian life and the armed forces of the belligerents largely intact. Robert Osgood also admitted that limited war was not a uniform phenomena, it meant different things to different p eople. War could be limited in different ways and could be limited in some and not limited in others. For instance, a war limited in geographical terms may be unlimited in weapons employed or the targets involved. Similarly, a war may be limited for one of the adversaries yet unlimited in the eyes of the other [8]. Osgood while writing an epilogue on US experiences in Vietnam war, candidly confessed that even in nuclear age, a category of limited war exists which was still limited because of limitation of means. He examined limited war under three different categories of Central War, Local War and Unconventional war. While Central war involved use of nuclear weapons and was unacceptable, popularity of unconventional wars declined in US post Vietnam war. Hence, Osgood rated conventional local war as the most practical form of limited war though he did factor the contingencies which may arise and require other two categories to become operational [9]. Henry Kissinger, in Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy advocated that limited war might be a war confined to a defined geographical area, or war that does not utilize the entire available weapons system (such as refraining from the use of thermonuclear weapons). It may be a war which utilizes entire weapons system but it limits its employment to specific targets [10]. Kissinger, the man behind the Nixon Administrations adoption of the strategy of Limited Nuclear Options popularly known as Schlesinger Doctrine defined limited war as a war fought for specific political objectives which, by their very existence, led to establish a relationship between the force employed and the goal to be attained. It reflects an attempt to affect the opponents will, not to crush it, to make the conditions to be imposed seem more attractive than continued resistance to strive for specific goals and not for complete annihilation [11]. Kissinger , nevertheless, propogated a limited nuclear war strategy which came into conflict with the arguments of known proponets of limited war like Osgood and William Kaufmann, then the greatest critic of limited nuclear war. Kaufmann, a Yale University scholar and the brain behind the McMamara Strategy of flexible response, advocated keeping the war limited and its escalation under control. A more apt definition of limited war in line with contemporary thought process and environment is An armed conflict in which at least one protagonist intentionally restricts his objectives and/or means to accomplish those objectives. Intentional restriction can be self imposed or induced by an opponent or another nation or nations or organizations [12]. Limited war is also defined as a military encounter in which the two warring sides see each other on opposing sides and in which the effort of each falls short of the attempt to use all of its power to destroy the other [13]. Beyond doubt, limitation in warfare has always been impressed upon on the grounds of either morality or other limitations of resources and technology. However, with the advent of nuclear weapons on the one hand and of irreconciliable ideologies on the other, limitation in warfare had become a matter of necessity if the war was to sustain its traditional role of being an instruement of politics. And it is here that the strategy of limited war which seeks to preserve the eternal values of primacy of politics and economy of force even in the nuclear age has assumed supreme importance. Limited war framework does not include wars involving non-nuclear states. Instead, limited wars are conflicts in which vital interests of the nuclear powers are directly or indirectly involved and in which, therefore, the threat of their expansion into a Total War remains omnipresent imminent. Hence, it is this massive and deliberate hobbling of their infinite power by nuclear weapon powers that qualifies a conflict as limited war. Such wars have also been termed as Short Wars and , as seen in numerous conflicts since second World War II, have retained their pre-eminence as the most acceptable category of war in the contemporary nuclear age. The US and the Soviet Union, the two nuclear superpowers in cold war era, had the responsibility to not only ensure limitation of conflicts that involved dangers of exploding into a nuclear war but also to modify its war fighting doctrines to address the imperatives of intense short wars, which were likely to manifest in the nuclear enviornment. However, as the Soviet Union disintegrated, it enjoined on the US to effect a major shift in US war fighting doctrines, wherein it adopted a short war specific logistic structure to support the challenges to US strategic security calculus. The logistic structure catered for highly intense and violent battlefield which would have exacted heavy casualties of men, material and equipment [14]. Limited War In Indian Context The Indian Limited War doctrine had its roots in formulation of our response to the Pakistani aggression in Kargil in 1999. As the Dec 2001 terrorist strike led to mobilization and protracted deployment in Operation Parakram, the Indian strategists offered Limited War as Indias answer to what in security theory is termed as the stability-instability paradox. In the recent years, the limited war theory has acquired highly placed proponents and gained its own doctrinal respectability amidst intense public debates amongst Indian think tanks. Paradoxically, the Pakistani strategic experts community calls our new strategy as a doctrinal response based on regurgitation of American limited war concept of nineteen fifties to threaten and deter Pakistan [15]. Evidently, the Indian perspective on limited conventional war in a nuclear backdrop has witnessed intense and vigorous debate with proponents and opponents posing questions and counter questions on the probability of a limited conventional war escalating into a nuclear conflagaration. Historically, nuclear weapons have engendered caution between adversarial states, wherein the 1969 Soviet-Sino Ussuri River clashes and Indo-Pak Kargil war remains the only two cases where two declared nuclear weapon states have engaged in armed conflict [16]. Therefore, the options for India, to pursue its limited war doctrine against Pakistan, is to either apply military power spaced out in time and concentrated in space or stretched out in space and concentrated in time. In other words, Indian defense doctrine and strategy must seek to apply calibrated force for punitive effect, which does not have a destabilizing effect on the adversary [17]. The nuclear factor in South Asia has rendered total war u nthinkable and limited war has become a necessity and must be central to the military input provided to the political leadership as an option to secure conflict limitation [18]. From the Pak perspective, a limited conventional war in the Indo- Pak context, can be defined as a war designed to achieve specified political objectives by applying compatible resources in a critical area and by acting smartly in a manner so as to leave bare minimum incentive for the opponent to react with nuclear weapons without taking definite risk to suffer more gains [19] . India, of late, is also forced to contend with an increasingly assertive and belligerent China which sees India as the single biggest rival to Chinese pre- eminence in Asia. As numerous strategic and defence experts have began to increase the probability of a Sino-Indian military conflagration in the Himalayas, an objective look at the time frame duration of such a conflict is also mandated. A limited war in our context would envisage a likely time frame of 21- 28 days. This time frame is a logical one as geo-political realities of an armed conflict between two nuclear states along with inherent limitations of developing states in terms of economy, war waging capability etc will preclude continuation of viable operations beyond four weeks. Moreover, in a Sino-Indian conflict, the restrictive campaigning season of approximately two months will be a determinant of duration of hostilities as both sides would need time to build up their forces in the post monsoon phase. Otherwise, too, all our past wars have unambiguously been short wars, limited in duration and objectives and the future wars in a nuclear backdrop are going to be anything but different. Yet, the future wars will be short but highly intense, destructive wars, exacting heavy casualties of men, material and equipment in fast, fluid mobile battles across the entire spectrum of conflict in a technologically drive n war fighting environment with far reaching implications for the war fighting philosophies of the adversaries. Logistics Imperatives The future battlefield in an intense, short war would necessitate a major transformation in our logistic support system with likely changes as under [20] :- Limited preparatory period and highly intense short duration war, necessitating an efficient mobilization plan. Self contained theatre based logistic support structure. High attrition rate due to greater accuracy and lethality of long range weapon systems necessitating forward positioning of a greater quantum of reserves. Greater emphasis on intra theatre regeneration and re-supply of logistics resources. A sense and respond system working on the push model. Adoption of information technology and decision support systems for total asset visibility and improved inventory management [21]. Need to improve survivability of logistics echelons by dispersion and area air defence cover where possible. Maximum reliance on air maintenance for maintenance of momentum especially in mountainous and desert terrains. Need for greater degree of logistics flexibility and redundancy in all theatres. Increased strain on logistics support system due to greater density of high technological equipment in battlefield. The diversity of terrain and our varied operational roles, required to be performed in highly intense, short duration wars pose enormous logistic challenges and demand a dynamic, new approach to include simple, flexible and efficient logistic plans, based on a technology driven, seamless and fully networked logistic system. Such an approach is required to integrate the logistic resources of the three services and to utilize the existing national infrastructure more profitably to improve our logistic efficiency and enhance our operational readiness [22]. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS TO INCLUDE SHORTCOMINGS OF EXISTING LOGISTIC ORGANISATION Existing Defence Logistic System National Level In India, the Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) is the highest decision making body on national security and strategic issues and is mandated to formulate policies for the defence of the country through the National Security Council ( NSC ) established in 1998. The Defence Minister, who is a member of the Cabinet Committee on Security, heads the Ministry of Defence ( MOD )and is responsible for implementing the governments defence policies. The defence policies get implemented through various committees functioning under the MOD [23]. Details of such committees are as under :- Defence Ministers Committee. Defence Ministers Production and Supply Committee. Defence Research and Development Council. Chiefs of Staff Committee. The Defence Ministers committee is responsible for defence planning while the Production and Supply Committee is most important as it covers the entire gamut of planning force levels and equipment planning related to availabilty of resources. The Chiefs of Staff Committee advise the Defence Minister on all military matters including logistics matters. Another committee called the Joint Adminstration Planning Committee (JAPC) having representatives from the Services, is placed under the Chiefs of Staff Committee to coordinate the logistics effort of the three services and to prepare a joint adminstration plan to supplement and support the overall mobilisation and operational plan evolved by the Joint Planning Committee ( JPC ) [24]. Army Logistics At Army Headquarters level, the agencies responsibile for providing logistics are the Adjutant General (AG), Quartermaster general (QMG), Master General of Ordnance (MGO) and Engineering-in-Chief (E-in-C). Basically the existing system is influenced by what was primarily inherited from the British Army. In the present organization, the supply and transport are under the QMG while Ordnance and EME are with the MGO and the Medical services have been placed under the AG. Moreover, selection and introduction of any new equipment though a joint responsibility, is with the Weapons and Equipment (WE) Directorate while maintenance of such equipment is a logistic function. In order to coordinate various branches and to ensure smooth flow, Directorate General Operational Logistics (DGOL) has been created. However, the management and control of the logistic services has not been brought under a unified single management or control, which gives rise to a number of intra-service logistical proble ms , thereby making the task of DGOL difficult [25]. Utilisation of army budget also is a problem area as the QMG Branch, which is responsible for large portion of Armys logistic planning, spends almost two-fifths of the army budget [26]. Thus the staff support is highly fragmented and does not approximate to the concept of integrated logistic support. IAF Logistics In IAF, the Logistics Branch handles all the equipment, materials management and distribution functions [27]. At the Air Headquarters, Air Officer-in-charge Maintenance ( AOM ) and Air Officer-in-charge administration ( AOA ) perform functions similar to those of the AG and the QMG in the army and partly similar to those of MGO. The AOM is assisted by four Additional Chiefs of Air Staff ( ACAS ) and Air Officer Logistics ( AOL ). The AOM to a large extent, provides single point management and control, wherein all specialist aspects of aircraft and equipment maintenance, overhaul and provisioning of stores in respect of each weapon system is looked after. In addition, the Initial Provisioning Committee and Maintenance Planning Teams provide logistic support for the newly introduced aircraft and weapon systems [28]. As regards, functions of AOA, he is assisted by two ACsAS and controls administrative aspects such as organization, works, accounts, legal ,medical, pay and provost. Navy Logistics In Navy, the Chief of Materials (COM ), a Principle Staff Officer to the Naval Chief at Naval Headquarters is responsible for entire Logistics management function in the Navy. He is assisted by the Controller of Logistics Support, who functions directly under the Chief of Material and deals with logistics support, clothing and victualling, armament supply and transport. In addition, there are two Assistant Chiefs of Materials aiding the Chief of Material to deal with Systems and DR. The Chief of Personnel (COP) heads the personnel branch and handles the medical services, recruitment, welfare and service conditions [29]. Analysis of the Existing System An analysis of the existing logistics system reveals some glaring and profound weaknesses which need to be redressed forthwith, in order to obviate potential adverse effects on our national security. The systemic weaknesses are pronounced in the fields of our logistic organization, both at national and services level and also in our failure to integrate our logistics system. The later, in fact, is a manifestation of a flawed organizational set up, being carried forward as a legacy of the colonial times. That so many past studies and writings by experts on the subject have failed to elicit the attention of the decision makers concerned is a sad reflection on our system and underlines a lack of overall national perspective for logistics. Further, it is apparent that the decision making structures at the national and services level are either inappropriate or simply unresponsive. Our logistic system, though has taken the obvious weaknesses and the shortcomings in its stride and has deli vered the goods in all wars fought by us in the post independence period. As such, it is of utmost importance that the obvious shortcomings are identified and addressed in order to integrate and optimize our logistics system as a true component of the National Effort, needed to respond to growing threats to our national security. Shortcomings of our Logistic System Organisational Weakness. At the top echelons of the MOD and Chiefs of Staff Committee ( COSC ), Defence by Committees is the accepted style of functioning, which is hardly conducive to efficient functioning. The Service chiefs are responsible for operational and logistic preparedness, but exercise little or no control over budget and provisioning of war like material, which remains the direct prerogative of the MOD. No National Level Organisation. Neither any national level organisation exists to oversee, coordinate and integrate our defence needs with national development nor any visible efforts are seen towards orienting national level logistical planning to our defence requirements. Lack of Common Logistic Doctrine. Despite jointness and integration being the buzzwords, the three services have failed to evolve a common logistics doctrine and philosophy of logistic support. Multiplicity of Logistic Agencies. There is a multiplicity in logistic agencies with no single authority responsible to the Chief of Army Staff ( COAS ) for logistics preparedness. Lack of centralized logistic support encourages duplication and wasteful expenditure. Multiple Procurement Agencies. Multiple procurement agencies in the services with lack of interaction, work against the principle of economy and lead to increased costs. Lack of Standardisation and Codification . It leads to duplication and high inventories. Multiple stocking echelons ,too, lead to a high level of stocking and is compounded due to lack of an integrated systems approach to determine stock levels. A vast range of assorted equipment, both imported and indigenous, has only exacerbated the problems of providing effective logistics backup [30]. Inventory Automation. Despite commonality of procedures, separate inventory automation has been undertaken by all three services, thus violating the administration principal of economy. Private Sector Involvement in Defence Research and Development. Despite the dynamic changes ushered by Defence Procurement Procedure 2005 2009, the private sector involvement in defence research development and defence production has not reached the desired levels. Attitudinal Change towards logistics, In Indian Army, an attitude has been prevalent for long, wherein logistics consideration in an operational plan are invariably given short shrift under the mistaken belief that a commanders tactical brilliance will some how compensate for inadequate consideration of logistics. The practice of not involving the logistics functionary in formulation of operational plans and then leaving the logistics planning entirely to logisticians is an inevitable recipe for disaster. Mobilisation. Mobilisation involves movement of men and material, wherein move by rail is carried out under the aegis of the Operational Rail Movement Plan (ORMP). Though the plan has been validated during OP VIJAY and OP PARAKRAM , concerns remain as regards the move and dispersion of strike and dual task formations as also the creation of requisite infrastructure for unloading / loading at railway stations concerned. Besides this, shortage of defence rolling stocks exist which will inhibit speedy mobilisation. Functioning of Ordnance Factories and the PSUs. Director General of Ordnance Factories and the Defence Public Sector Undertakings are major defence manufacturers. However, the present organisational structure precludes the optimum functioning of these organisations. Despite being an intrinsic part of Defence Ministers Production and Supply Committee ( DPSC ) , the Ordnance Factory Board ( OFB ) usually functions independently and in any case is not accountable to the Army or the defence, though the funding for the OFB is made from the Army Budget. As such, the Chief of Army Staff has very little say with respect to production and priority in delivery of items. The OFB items also have quality concerns especially in general stores and clothing items. Multiple Echelon System. The multiple echelon system which is existing as the chain of supply to the field formations need critical examination and reduction of echelons where feasible. Logistics support need not be the same across the board for all formations in the country, it can be tailor-made to meet the requirement of a particular sector, the terrain, the type of operations and equipment likely to operate in the area. This will cut down the time factor for move from source to the field formation. Push Model. The push model of pumping the logistics requirement of troops forward has been partially implemented in certain areas. It needs to be implemented across the board to ensure that the troops do not have to look over their shoulders for logistics support. CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF CONTEMPORARY LOGISTICS ORGANISATION OF MAJOR MILITARY POWERS US System The US Armed Forces have a highly efficient and responsive logistic system, based on a dynamic organizational structure which has evolved to meet the ever changing operational requirements. The Defence Logistic Agency ( DLA ), a US Department of Defence ( DOD ) agency supplies the nations military services and several civilian agencies with the wide ranging logistical support for peacetime and wartime operations as well as emergency preparedness and humanitarian missions [31]. The DLA Director reports to the Under Secretary of Defence for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics through the Deputy Under Secretary of Defence ( Logistics and Material Readiness ).The DLA has evolved from Defence Supply Agency ( DSA ), which worked on the Single Manager Concept, wherein eight service agencies viz army, navy, air force etc handled one commodity each and became DSA supply centers. In 1977, DLA was established with the aim of centralizing the management of common military logistics support and to introduce uniform financial management practices. Later, the Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986, for integration of US Armed Forces, identified DLA as a combat support agency. In Feb 2000, a new DLA organization structure part of an integrated plan called DLA 21 integrated all distribution depots of the military services into a single, unified material distribution system to reduce overhead costs and place them under DLA for management. It also created four major sub agencies under the DLA as under :- Def Logistics Support Command ( DLSC). Responsible for integration of logistics operations, supply chain management, readiness and contigency operations support. It is also responsible for procurement, storage and distribution of consumable parts, fuel, medical, subsistence and clothing and textile support. It has subsequently been reorganised as DLA Logistics Operations Directorate ( DLALO J-3 ). Def Contract Management Command. Responsible for DODs primary contract administration activity. Information Operations. Responsible for DLAs information technology activities to enhance e-commerce, logistics support system and document automation in support of military logistics. Financial Operations. Responsible for streamlining DLAs financial system for agencys future initiatives. UK System UK, too, has been a fore runner in initiation of defence reforms, which began with th Defence Logistics Organisation Analysis for War Suitability Defence Logistics Organisation Analysis for War Suitability CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Historically, nation states have used military power as an instruement of state to achieve their national aims objectives. Towards that end, logistics along with strategy and tactics constitute an important sub division of the practical art of war fighting [1]. It therefore evolves upon students of military history to grasp the nuances of logistics, the way it affects the very essence of modern, contemporary war fighting philosophy. To begin with, it is not incorrect to say that the military activity known as logistics is probably as old as war itself. The word logistics is derived from the Greek adjective, logistikus meaning skilled in calculating. Research indicates that the first use of the word with reference to an organised military administrative service was by the French writer Jomini who served as a staff officer in Napoleons army. In 1838, he set down logistics as one of the six branches of the military art, the other five being statesmanship in its relationship to war, strategy or art of properly directing masses upon the theatre of war, grand tactics, engineering and minor tactics. He included the phrase it is the execution of strategic and tactical enterprises in his definition of logistics. In short, he devised a theory of war upon the trinity of strategy, ground tactics and logistics. He defined it as practical art of moving armies [2]. Based on the experience gained over the years, the term was redefined in 1968 wherein Logistics was referred to as the art and science of creating and maintaining a military capability. It consists of the process of determining requirements, acquisitions, distributions and maintenance of materials. As regards, our Indian manuals, they define logistics as the science of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of forces[3]. In todays usage, logistics is the function of providing all the material and services that a military force needs in Peace or War. Logistics, therefore, covers a wide canvas broadly includes all military activities, other than strategy and tactics. It would therefore, be prudent to refer to logistics as the bridge between our combat troops and the industry natural resources of our country. Logistics perse is a key element of Doctrine, too, which describes it as a process that consists of planning and executing the movement and sustenance of operating forces in executing a military strategy and operations. It is essentially moving, supplying and maintaining military forces and is basic to the ability of armies, fleets and air forces to operate indeed to exist. It has a direct bearing on a countrys capability to support a national strategy [4]. As the rapidly evolving modern battlefield milieu transforms into short, intense and technologically intensive wars, the over bearing need for a fool proof and highly responsive logistic organizational structure for Indian Army to meet the logistic imperatives of a short war cannot be over emphasized. Our existing logistics system has been inherited from the British. Though the logistic system in general and the logistic organisation in particular have been subjected to numerous improvements and changes over the last six decades, the logistic system perse has failed to evolve with changing times and has more or less retained its archaic character. The major, Mathew[5] reason for the antiquated character of our logistic system is the flawed organisational structure which inhibits and precludes optimum utilisation of our well developed and vast national logistic capacities. Restructuring of our existing defence logistics organisation, therefore, is a pre-requisite to restructure our logistic system to meet the logistic imperatives of a short war. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem To study and analyse the existing defence logistics organisation and to ascertain its suitability to meet the logistics imperatives of a short war. Hypothesis Our existing defence logistics organization is based on archaic concepts and will not be able to deliver adequately in a short war. Scope The scope of this study is restricted to analysis of the existing defence logistics organisation and to suggest a viable and responsive organisational structure that can meet the logistics imperatives of a short war. Methods of Data Collection. The data and information has been gathered from books, journals, periodicals, internet sites and also from own exposure and experience. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the text. CHAPTER III LIMITED / SHORT WAR IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT AND ITS IMPERATIVES War has been the single most important instruement by which most of the great facts of human history have been accomplished and maintained. It has been used as an instruement against aggression as also as an instruement of aggression itself. It has played the most dominant role in nearly all important crisis of humankind ; it has been used to achieve liberty, to ensure democracy as also in building great empires and in enforcing dictatorships. The term war today has come to include many more kinds of hostile activities ; limited war, short war, total war, cold war, hot war, propaganda war, psychological war, ground war, space war as also various other low -intensity conflicts such as guerilla war and fourth generation warfare. Thus war today is not only far more horrifying and a far more complex affair, it has also come to pervade all other aspects of mans social life [6]. Limited War The concept of limited war goes back to the 19th century when miitary theorists underscored the determinative relationship between political ends and military means. Both 19th century theorist Clausewitz and his 20th century successor Liddell Hart were committed advocates of the use of limited war or limited force as opposed to total war. In the 19th century, when concepts of blitzkrieg and wars of annihilation dominated military thoughts and policies, Clausewitz opposed such concepts. He stated, Political objectives, as the original motives of the war, should be the standard for determining both the aim of the military force and also the aim of effort to be made. With the advancement in automatic warfare in the middle of World War II, Liddell Hart realised that because of the destructive nature of the weapons, wars should be limited; however, he did not advocate limited war as a strategy. Later after the development of nuclear weapons, Liddell Hart came up with the concept of limite d war. He said, Where both sides possess atomic power, total war makes nonsense and any unlimited war waged with atomic power would make worse than nonsense; it would be mutually suicidal. He goes on to say any total war, or even the preparation for it, is likely to carry more evils in its train, without bearing any good promise in the event of victory [7]. Robert E Osgood defined limited war as A limited war is one in which the belligerents restrict the purpose for which they fight to concrete, well defined objectives that do not demand the utmost military effort of which the belligerents are capable and that can be accommodated in a negotiated settlement. The battle is confined to a local geographical area and directed against selected targets primarily those of direct military importance. It permits their economic, social and political patterns of existence to continue without serious disruption. In another study, Osgood defines limited war as a war that was to be fought for ends far short of the complete subordination of one states will to anothers using means that involve far less than the total military resources of the belligerents and leave the civilian life and the armed forces of the belligerents largely intact. Robert Osgood also admitted that limited war was not a uniform phenomena, it meant different things to different p eople. War could be limited in different ways and could be limited in some and not limited in others. For instance, a war limited in geographical terms may be unlimited in weapons employed or the targets involved. Similarly, a war may be limited for one of the adversaries yet unlimited in the eyes of the other [8]. Osgood while writing an epilogue on US experiences in Vietnam war, candidly confessed that even in nuclear age, a category of limited war exists which was still limited because of limitation of means. He examined limited war under three different categories of Central War, Local War and Unconventional war. While Central war involved use of nuclear weapons and was unacceptable, popularity of unconventional wars declined in US post Vietnam war. Hence, Osgood rated conventional local war as the most practical form of limited war though he did factor the contingencies which may arise and require other two categories to become operational [9]. Henry Kissinger, in Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy advocated that limited war might be a war confined to a defined geographical area, or war that does not utilize the entire available weapons system (such as refraining from the use of thermonuclear weapons). It may be a war which utilizes entire weapons system but it limits its employment to specific targets [10]. Kissinger, the man behind the Nixon Administrations adoption of the strategy of Limited Nuclear Options popularly known as Schlesinger Doctrine defined limited war as a war fought for specific political objectives which, by their very existence, led to establish a relationship between the force employed and the goal to be attained. It reflects an attempt to affect the opponents will, not to crush it, to make the conditions to be imposed seem more attractive than continued resistance to strive for specific goals and not for complete annihilation [11]. Kissinger , nevertheless, propogated a limited nuclear war strategy which came into conflict with the arguments of known proponets of limited war like Osgood and William Kaufmann, then the greatest critic of limited nuclear war. Kaufmann, a Yale University scholar and the brain behind the McMamara Strategy of flexible response, advocated keeping the war limited and its escalation under control. A more apt definition of limited war in line with contemporary thought process and environment is An armed conflict in which at least one protagonist intentionally restricts his objectives and/or means to accomplish those objectives. Intentional restriction can be self imposed or induced by an opponent or another nation or nations or organizations [12]. Limited war is also defined as a military encounter in which the two warring sides see each other on opposing sides and in which the effort of each falls short of the attempt to use all of its power to destroy the other [13]. Beyond doubt, limitation in warfare has always been impressed upon on the grounds of either morality or other limitations of resources and technology. However, with the advent of nuclear weapons on the one hand and of irreconciliable ideologies on the other, limitation in warfare had become a matter of necessity if the war was to sustain its traditional role of being an instruement of politics. And it is here that the strategy of limited war which seeks to preserve the eternal values of primacy of politics and economy of force even in the nuclear age has assumed supreme importance. Limited war framework does not include wars involving non-nuclear states. Instead, limited wars are conflicts in which vital interests of the nuclear powers are directly or indirectly involved and in which, therefore, the threat of their expansion into a Total War remains omnipresent imminent. Hence, it is this massive and deliberate hobbling of their infinite power by nuclear weapon powers that qualifies a conflict as limited war. Such wars have also been termed as Short Wars and , as seen in numerous conflicts since second World War II, have retained their pre-eminence as the most acceptable category of war in the contemporary nuclear age. The US and the Soviet Union, the two nuclear superpowers in cold war era, had the responsibility to not only ensure limitation of conflicts that involved dangers of exploding into a nuclear war but also to modify its war fighting doctrines to address the imperatives of intense short wars, which were likely to manifest in the nuclear enviornment. However, as the Soviet Union disintegrated, it enjoined on the US to effect a major shift in US war fighting doctrines, wherein it adopted a short war specific logistic structure to support the challenges to US strategic security calculus. The logistic structure catered for highly intense and violent battlefield which would have exacted heavy casualties of men, material and equipment [14]. Limited War In Indian Context The Indian Limited War doctrine had its roots in formulation of our response to the Pakistani aggression in Kargil in 1999. As the Dec 2001 terrorist strike led to mobilization and protracted deployment in Operation Parakram, the Indian strategists offered Limited War as Indias answer to what in security theory is termed as the stability-instability paradox. In the recent years, the limited war theory has acquired highly placed proponents and gained its own doctrinal respectability amidst intense public debates amongst Indian think tanks. Paradoxically, the Pakistani strategic experts community calls our new strategy as a doctrinal response based on regurgitation of American limited war concept of nineteen fifties to threaten and deter Pakistan [15]. Evidently, the Indian perspective on limited conventional war in a nuclear backdrop has witnessed intense and vigorous debate with proponents and opponents posing questions and counter questions on the probability of a limited conventional war escalating into a nuclear conflagaration. Historically, nuclear weapons have engendered caution between adversarial states, wherein the 1969 Soviet-Sino Ussuri River clashes and Indo-Pak Kargil war remains the only two cases where two declared nuclear weapon states have engaged in armed conflict [16]. Therefore, the options for India, to pursue its limited war doctrine against Pakistan, is to either apply military power spaced out in time and concentrated in space or stretched out in space and concentrated in time. In other words, Indian defense doctrine and strategy must seek to apply calibrated force for punitive effect, which does not have a destabilizing effect on the adversary [17]. The nuclear factor in South Asia has rendered total war u nthinkable and limited war has become a necessity and must be central to the military input provided to the political leadership as an option to secure conflict limitation [18]. From the Pak perspective, a limited conventional war in the Indo- Pak context, can be defined as a war designed to achieve specified political objectives by applying compatible resources in a critical area and by acting smartly in a manner so as to leave bare minimum incentive for the opponent to react with nuclear weapons without taking definite risk to suffer more gains [19] . India, of late, is also forced to contend with an increasingly assertive and belligerent China which sees India as the single biggest rival to Chinese pre- eminence in Asia. As numerous strategic and defence experts have began to increase the probability of a Sino-Indian military conflagration in the Himalayas, an objective look at the time frame duration of such a conflict is also mandated. A limited war in our context would envisage a likely time frame of 21- 28 days. This time frame is a logical one as geo-political realities of an armed conflict between two nuclear states along with inherent limitations of developing states in terms of economy, war waging capability etc will preclude continuation of viable operations beyond four weeks. Moreover, in a Sino-Indian conflict, the restrictive campaigning season of approximately two months will be a determinant of duration of hostilities as both sides would need time to build up their forces in the post monsoon phase. Otherwise, too, all our past wars have unambiguously been short wars, limited in duration and objectives and the future wars in a nuclear backdrop are going to be anything but different. Yet, the future wars will be short but highly intense, destructive wars, exacting heavy casualties of men, material and equipment in fast, fluid mobile battles across the entire spectrum of conflict in a technologically drive n war fighting environment with far reaching implications for the war fighting philosophies of the adversaries. Logistics Imperatives The future battlefield in an intense, short war would necessitate a major transformation in our logistic support system with likely changes as under [20] :- Limited preparatory period and highly intense short duration war, necessitating an efficient mobilization plan. Self contained theatre based logistic support structure. High attrition rate due to greater accuracy and lethality of long range weapon systems necessitating forward positioning of a greater quantum of reserves. Greater emphasis on intra theatre regeneration and re-supply of logistics resources. A sense and respond system working on the push model. Adoption of information technology and decision support systems for total asset visibility and improved inventory management [21]. Need to improve survivability of logistics echelons by dispersion and area air defence cover where possible. Maximum reliance on air maintenance for maintenance of momentum especially in mountainous and desert terrains. Need for greater degree of logistics flexibility and redundancy in all theatres. Increased strain on logistics support system due to greater density of high technological equipment in battlefield. The diversity of terrain and our varied operational roles, required to be performed in highly intense, short duration wars pose enormous logistic challenges and demand a dynamic, new approach to include simple, flexible and efficient logistic plans, based on a technology driven, seamless and fully networked logistic system. Such an approach is required to integrate the logistic resources of the three services and to utilize the existing national infrastructure more profitably to improve our logistic efficiency and enhance our operational readiness [22]. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS TO INCLUDE SHORTCOMINGS OF EXISTING LOGISTIC ORGANISATION Existing Defence Logistic System National Level In India, the Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) is the highest decision making body on national security and strategic issues and is mandated to formulate policies for the defence of the country through the National Security Council ( NSC ) established in 1998. The Defence Minister, who is a member of the Cabinet Committee on Security, heads the Ministry of Defence ( MOD )and is responsible for implementing the governments defence policies. The defence policies get implemented through various committees functioning under the MOD [23]. Details of such committees are as under :- Defence Ministers Committee. Defence Ministers Production and Supply Committee. Defence Research and Development Council. Chiefs of Staff Committee. The Defence Ministers committee is responsible for defence planning while the Production and Supply Committee is most important as it covers the entire gamut of planning force levels and equipment planning related to availabilty of resources. The Chiefs of Staff Committee advise the Defence Minister on all military matters including logistics matters. Another committee called the Joint Adminstration Planning Committee (JAPC) having representatives from the Services, is placed under the Chiefs of Staff Committee to coordinate the logistics effort of the three services and to prepare a joint adminstration plan to supplement and support the overall mobilisation and operational plan evolved by the Joint Planning Committee ( JPC ) [24]. Army Logistics At Army Headquarters level, the agencies responsibile for providing logistics are the Adjutant General (AG), Quartermaster general (QMG), Master General of Ordnance (MGO) and Engineering-in-Chief (E-in-C). Basically the existing system is influenced by what was primarily inherited from the British Army. In the present organization, the supply and transport are under the QMG while Ordnance and EME are with the MGO and the Medical services have been placed under the AG. Moreover, selection and introduction of any new equipment though a joint responsibility, is with the Weapons and Equipment (WE) Directorate while maintenance of such equipment is a logistic function. In order to coordinate various branches and to ensure smooth flow, Directorate General Operational Logistics (DGOL) has been created. However, the management and control of the logistic services has not been brought under a unified single management or control, which gives rise to a number of intra-service logistical proble ms , thereby making the task of DGOL difficult [25]. Utilisation of army budget also is a problem area as the QMG Branch, which is responsible for large portion of Armys logistic planning, spends almost two-fifths of the army budget [26]. Thus the staff support is highly fragmented and does not approximate to the concept of integrated logistic support. IAF Logistics In IAF, the Logistics Branch handles all the equipment, materials management and distribution functions [27]. At the Air Headquarters, Air Officer-in-charge Maintenance ( AOM ) and Air Officer-in-charge administration ( AOA ) perform functions similar to those of the AG and the QMG in the army and partly similar to those of MGO. The AOM is assisted by four Additional Chiefs of Air Staff ( ACAS ) and Air Officer Logistics ( AOL ). The AOM to a large extent, provides single point management and control, wherein all specialist aspects of aircraft and equipment maintenance, overhaul and provisioning of stores in respect of each weapon system is looked after. In addition, the Initial Provisioning Committee and Maintenance Planning Teams provide logistic support for the newly introduced aircraft and weapon systems [28]. As regards, functions of AOA, he is assisted by two ACsAS and controls administrative aspects such as organization, works, accounts, legal ,medical, pay and provost. Navy Logistics In Navy, the Chief of Materials (COM ), a Principle Staff Officer to the Naval Chief at Naval Headquarters is responsible for entire Logistics management function in the Navy. He is assisted by the Controller of Logistics Support, who functions directly under the Chief of Material and deals with logistics support, clothing and victualling, armament supply and transport. In addition, there are two Assistant Chiefs of Materials aiding the Chief of Material to deal with Systems and DR. The Chief of Personnel (COP) heads the personnel branch and handles the medical services, recruitment, welfare and service conditions [29]. Analysis of the Existing System An analysis of the existing logistics system reveals some glaring and profound weaknesses which need to be redressed forthwith, in order to obviate potential adverse effects on our national security. The systemic weaknesses are pronounced in the fields of our logistic organization, both at national and services level and also in our failure to integrate our logistics system. The later, in fact, is a manifestation of a flawed organizational set up, being carried forward as a legacy of the colonial times. That so many past studies and writings by experts on the subject have failed to elicit the attention of the decision makers concerned is a sad reflection on our system and underlines a lack of overall national perspective for logistics. Further, it is apparent that the decision making structures at the national and services level are either inappropriate or simply unresponsive. Our logistic system, though has taken the obvious weaknesses and the shortcomings in its stride and has deli vered the goods in all wars fought by us in the post independence period. As such, it is of utmost importance that the obvious shortcomings are identified and addressed in order to integrate and optimize our logistics system as a true component of the National Effort, needed to respond to growing threats to our national security. Shortcomings of our Logistic System Organisational Weakness. At the top echelons of the MOD and Chiefs of Staff Committee ( COSC ), Defence by Committees is the accepted style of functioning, which is hardly conducive to efficient functioning. The Service chiefs are responsible for operational and logistic preparedness, but exercise little or no control over budget and provisioning of war like material, which remains the direct prerogative of the MOD. No National Level Organisation. Neither any national level organisation exists to oversee, coordinate and integrate our defence needs with national development nor any visible efforts are seen towards orienting national level logistical planning to our defence requirements. Lack of Common Logistic Doctrine. Despite jointness and integration being the buzzwords, the three services have failed to evolve a common logistics doctrine and philosophy of logistic support. Multiplicity of Logistic Agencies. There is a multiplicity in logistic agencies with no single authority responsible to the Chief of Army Staff ( COAS ) for logistics preparedness. Lack of centralized logistic support encourages duplication and wasteful expenditure. Multiple Procurement Agencies. Multiple procurement agencies in the services with lack of interaction, work against the principle of economy and lead to increased costs. Lack of Standardisation and Codification . It leads to duplication and high inventories. Multiple stocking echelons ,too, lead to a high level of stocking and is compounded due to lack of an integrated systems approach to determine stock levels. A vast range of assorted equipment, both imported and indigenous, has only exacerbated the problems of providing effective logistics backup [30]. Inventory Automation. Despite commonality of procedures, separate inventory automation has been undertaken by all three services, thus violating the administration principal of economy. Private Sector Involvement in Defence Research and Development. Despite the dynamic changes ushered by Defence Procurement Procedure 2005 2009, the private sector involvement in defence research development and defence production has not reached the desired levels. Attitudinal Change towards logistics, In Indian Army, an attitude has been prevalent for long, wherein logistics consideration in an operational plan are invariably given short shrift under the mistaken belief that a commanders tactical brilliance will some how compensate for inadequate consideration of logistics. The practice of not involving the logistics functionary in formulation of operational plans and then leaving the logistics planning entirely to logisticians is an inevitable recipe for disaster. Mobilisation. Mobilisation involves movement of men and material, wherein move by rail is carried out under the aegis of the Operational Rail Movement Plan (ORMP). Though the plan has been validated during OP VIJAY and OP PARAKRAM , concerns remain as regards the move and dispersion of strike and dual task formations as also the creation of requisite infrastructure for unloading / loading at railway stations concerned. Besides this, shortage of defence rolling stocks exist which will inhibit speedy mobilisation. Functioning of Ordnance Factories and the PSUs. Director General of Ordnance Factories and the Defence Public Sector Undertakings are major defence manufacturers. However, the present organisational structure precludes the optimum functioning of these organisations. Despite being an intrinsic part of Defence Ministers Production and Supply Committee ( DPSC ) , the Ordnance Factory Board ( OFB ) usually functions independently and in any case is not accountable to the Army or the defence, though the funding for the OFB is made from the Army Budget. As such, the Chief of Army Staff has very little say with respect to production and priority in delivery of items. The OFB items also have quality concerns especially in general stores and clothing items. Multiple Echelon System. The multiple echelon system which is existing as the chain of supply to the field formations need critical examination and reduction of echelons where feasible. Logistics support need not be the same across the board for all formations in the country, it can be tailor-made to meet the requirement of a particular sector, the terrain, the type of operations and equipment likely to operate in the area. This will cut down the time factor for move from source to the field formation. Push Model. The push model of pumping the logistics requirement of troops forward has been partially implemented in certain areas. It needs to be implemented across the board to ensure that the troops do not have to look over their shoulders for logistics support. CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF CONTEMPORARY LOGISTICS ORGANISATION OF MAJOR MILITARY POWERS US System The US Armed Forces have a highly efficient and responsive logistic system, based on a dynamic organizational structure which has evolved to meet the ever changing operational requirements. The Defence Logistic Agency ( DLA ), a US Department of Defence ( DOD ) agency supplies the nations military services and several civilian agencies with the wide ranging logistical support for peacetime and wartime operations as well as emergency preparedness and humanitarian missions [31]. The DLA Director reports to the Under Secretary of Defence for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics through the Deputy Under Secretary of Defence ( Logistics and Material Readiness ).The DLA has evolved from Defence Supply Agency ( DSA ), which worked on the Single Manager Concept, wherein eight service agencies viz army, navy, air force etc handled one commodity each and became DSA supply centers. In 1977, DLA was established with the aim of centralizing the management of common military logistics support and to introduce uniform financial management practices. Later, the Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986, for integration of US Armed Forces, identified DLA as a combat support agency. In Feb 2000, a new DLA organization structure part of an integrated plan called DLA 21 integrated all distribution depots of the military services into a single, unified material distribution system to reduce overhead costs and place them under DLA for management. It also created four major sub agencies under the DLA as under :- Def Logistics Support Command ( DLSC). Responsible for integration of logistics operations, supply chain management, readiness and contigency operations support. It is also responsible for procurement, storage and distribution of consumable parts, fuel, medical, subsistence and clothing and textile support. It has subsequently been reorganised as DLA Logistics Operations Directorate ( DLALO J-3 ). Def Contract Management Command. Responsible for DODs primary contract administration activity. Information Operations. Responsible for DLAs information technology activities to enhance e-commerce, logistics support system and document automation in support of military logistics. Financial Operations. Responsible for streamlining DLAs financial system for agencys future initiatives. UK System UK, too, has been a fore runner in initiation of defence reforms, which began with th